Religion: Lived, Written, and Transmitted

Older descriptions often reduced Daoism to philosophy or superstition. Modern research rebuilt the field through scriptures, ritual, institutions, bodies, and local communities.

Kristofer Schipper combined work on the Daoist canon with fieldwork and formal religious training, making living practice central evidence.

Paul Demiéville demonstrated why Chinese Buddhist history cannot be isolated from Japanese scholarship, Sanskrit materials, and the wider movement of Buddhist texts.